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The concept of Global Health was introduced in the beginning of the 21st century to describe the interrelationship of health issues of all people, including those living in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), classically the domain of tropical medicine and tropical hygiene. It encompasses all preventive as well as curative aspects of health care and aims at equity for all. Does this mean that Tropical Medicine as a discipline is best abandoned and that a geographical focus is no longer-appropriate? How does this affect health care in LMICs?
Colonial medicine
Patrick Manson (1844-1922) is generally considered the father of tropical medicine. He lived during the era of colonial expansion of Great Britain, which also occurred in France, Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands. At the time, tropical medicine took shape as a discipline dealing with diseases that were common in hot climates overseas, that were related to poverty, and that were often caused by parasites transmitted by vectors from an animal reservoir. As civil servants and the military were affected by these exotic and unknown conditions in the colonies and after returning home, Manson emphasized the need of special training and research. At the same time, others identified the need for prevention and hygiene (Tropical Hygiene). [1]
In 1997, when colonial times were well behind us, a motion to abandon tropical medicine as a formal discipline was rejected during a debate among members of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene in the UK. Those opposed argued that the field of tropical medicine had expanded and had become more diverse and now included infectious diseases and non-communicable diseases, all of which affect populations in the tropics as well as expatriates. [2]
From colonial medicine to medicine in the (sub)tropics
Starting in the 1980s, healthcare in many parts of the (sub)tropics became dominated by the HIV/AIDS epidemic, and limited resources remained available for the classical tropical diseases. The practice of care was even referred to as the medicine of immunosuppression. [3] An epidemic of tuberculosis followed in the wake of HIV/AIDS. Malaria remained important as optimism on achieving control through DDT spraying appeared not justified. It was not until 1997 that Neglected Tropical Diseases, which had been the core of tropical medicine during the time of Manson, were recognized by policymakers and donors and placed higher on the research agenda. Thereafter, emerging infectious diseases, emergency medicine (disasters, conflict), travel medicine, migrant health, and non-communicable diseases were defined or given more attention (Figure 1). [4] This broadening of the field of tropical medicine is also reflected in Manson’s Tropical Medicine, the most authoritative textbook in the field. While the first edition in 1889 was about diseases of ‘warm climates’, the latest (23th) edition from 2014 covers a wide scope of infectious diseases and also includes prevention, economics, ethics and non- communicable diseases. [5]
From tropical hygiene to global health
With the end of colonial times, emphasis was increasingly placed on the health care of all people living in LMICs. Tropical hygiene became increasingly important, in particular with regard to prevention. This included improved sanitation to prevent diarrhoeal disease, better housing, and the application of insecticides and bed nets to prevent contact with insects (leishmaniasis, Chagas’ disease). Mass chemotherapy was used to treat and prevent onchocerciasis, lymphatic filariasis, and schistosomiasis. Intensive case detection has led to virtual eradication of dracunculiasis (Guinea worm), and improved vaccines and vaccine delivery have made eradication of smallpox possible, with poliomyelitis and measles likely to follow.
In addition to poverty, a failing public health infrastructure (responsible for the outbreak of Ebola), poor governance, and antibiotic resistance remain important challenges. [6] New factors include global warming, which contributes to the spread of vectors such as Aedes aegypti to new areas, resulting in the spread of Zika, Dengue, and West Nile and Chikungunya viruses. New outbreaks of zoonoses (Lyme disease, bird flu) have occurred, and increased international travel has led to major concern about the spread of MERS-CoV [Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Corona virus] and Ebola.
Tropical hygiene has been gradually developing. It still encompasses prevention and control as a central theme, but with a wider focus and increasing attention for global distribution, travel, zoonoses, international relations, environmental factors, and human rights. In 1964, the World Medical Association defined the ethical principles for medical research, including human subjects, in the Declaration of Helsinki, which has guided the conduct of research in the tropics. [7]
Public health and community health developed from tropical hygiene and usually concern the health of people in a certain area or region, with an emphasis on prevention and equity. It is not to be confused with Primary Health Care (PHC) (Table 1). Later, international health described the bilateral relationship between an HIC (High Income Country) and an LMIC.
‘Global health’ has developed from public health and international health. Over the years, several definitions have been used by different institutions (universities, donors, governments) to define their area of interest or to describe how it evolved from public health and international health or was driven by idealism with equity in health for all as the general theme. [8,9] The rapid spread of pathogens such as bird flu and Ebola as well as antibiotic resistance and obesity has contributed considerably to the evolution of the concept.
[Image: Figure 1. Broadening and deepening of Tropical Medicine anno 2017 (adapted from ref. 4)]
The relationship of these various disciplines and LMICs is shown in Figure 2.
How are the medical needs of lmics covered in global health?
Global Health takes the overall global view and focuses on public health issues. The concept typically comes from the ‘North’ (HICs) while the needs from the ‘South’ (LMICs) are different, with poor standards of clinical care and lack of disease control as the central themes. These needs, which are typically covered by the disciplines of tropical medicine and hygiene, do not feature in global health. This lack of focus could have adverse effects for LMICs (Table 2).
[Table 2. Health priorities in LMICs would be here]
[Figure 2. A schematic representation of patient care, public health, international health and global health and characteristics thereof, in relation to relevance at individual and population level, in an LMIC setting would be here]
[Table 1. Description of various terms used in health care would be here]
Conclusion
Global health did not develop from tropical medicine nor has it replaced it, but the two disciplines are complementary. This distinction is not merely a semantic one. The expertise, training, focus and commitment acquired by those working in tropical medicine (in synergy with public health) are the best guarantee that addressing the health needs of LMICs remains the highest priority.
References
- Cook GC. Tropical Medicine. An illustrated history of the pioneers. Academic Press, Elsevier Ltd, 2007.
- Cook GC, Warrell DA, Bryceson ADM. Debate: Tropical Medicine as a formal discipline is dead and should be buried. Trans R Soc Trop Med 1997;91:372-5.
- Moore EM. HIV is changing the face of tropical medicine. BMJ 2006;332:1280.
- Zijlstra EE. Tropische Geneeskunde anno 2015. Boerhaave (Na) scholingscursus Infectieziekten; 12-14 maart 2015. ISBN/EAN: 978-90-6767-753-0.
- Manson’s Tropical Diseases. Farrar, Hotez, Junghanss, Kang, Lalloo, White, eds. Elsevier Saunders, 23rd edition, 2014.
- Visser LG. Ebola, lessons from an emerging viral hemorrhagic infection in a failing public health infrastructure. Medicus Tropicus bulletin 2016,1.
- WHO and UNICEF joint report. Primary Health Care, Geneva, NewYork 1978.
- Koplan JP, Bond C, Merson MH, Reddy KS, Rodriguez MH, Sewankambo NK, Wasserheit JN, for the Consortium of Universities for Global Health Executive Board. Towards a common definition of global health. Lancet 2009;373:1993-95.
- Daibes I, Sridharan S. Where theory and practice of global health intersect: the developmental history of a Canadian global helath initiative. Global Health Action 2014;7:23974 – http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/gha/v7.23974
- https://www.wma.net/policies-post/wma-declaration-of-helsinki-ethical-principles-for-medical-research-involving-human-subjects/
- www.onehealthinitiative.com
